norm-referenced scores
untimed, free-response format
timed, multiple-choice format
foster extrinsic motivation
foster intrinsic motivation
criterion-referenced scores
oriented to product
oriented to process
interactive performance
formative
continuous, long-term assessment
one-shot, standardized exams
non-interactive performance
decontextualized test items
summative
focus on discrete answers
open-ended, creative answers
individualized feedback and washback
scores sufficient for feedback
contextualized communicative tasks
